Introduction
11 September 2001 is a date that is surely going to remain in the history of humankind. On this day, around 9 AM local time, two hijacked planes hit consecutively the North and the South Tower of the World Trade center. A third one crashed into the Pentagon, while the last one, probably directed towards the White house or the United States Capitol, crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. These attacks are the deadliest terrorist act in history, resulting in the death of nearly 3000 people, thousands of injured, and enormous destructions.
The terrorist attacks were broadcasted in real time nearly everywhere around the world. However, this is not the only factor that makes them a global event. A rather impressive phenomenon is how people from different cultures, with different backgrounds and lifestyles, speaking different languages, have memories of them. Undoubtedly, its unprecedentedness and the shock it provoked have a large contribution, as well as their representation in the following years (and even today).
According to Alessandro Cavalli, a “crucial event” can be described as:
“During the life of every individual, group, community, or even large society, events occur that mark turning points in its life course. These events structure the flow of time by dividing it into “what was before” and “what came after.” (cited in Rüsen, 2008, p.170)
The 9/11 attacks fit the definition above and are one of the crucial events in the human history. Their role as such, however, is not limited to a certain culture or region, but extends to people all around the world.
The Representation of 9/11
One of the key components in the investigation of 9/11’s impact is the studying of its representation in media and in the political discourses at the time. Undoubtedly this had a significant impact on the way the event was perceived and conservated in the collective memory.
A strong polarization has been created shortly after the attacks. One of the most important tools was nationalism – the nationalist discourses have quickly been evoked in an attempt to unite all the Americans against the “common enemy”. Numerous examples can be given, starting from the idea that disagreeing with the US administration is an anti-American action:
“Disagreeing with the President during a time of extreme national crisis, instead of offering your support is not only stupid, is not only brainless, does not only trivialize the brutal murder of thousands of New Yorkers, but is an affront to everything American.” (cited in Robinson, 2017, p.7)
Such opinions strengthen the authority of the president and create an “us VS them” situation – whoever does not agree with the administration by presumption agrees with the jihadists. Creating a polarization of this kind is a very strong political tool, especially in this situation.
The global representation of the attacks was an aim of both the United States’ administration and the terrorists. The latter performed them in a way and time that would result in as large spectatorship as possible and thus, as large impact as possible. One of the most illustrative examples of this impact would be the fear that immediately spread all around the world, resulting in numerous safety precautions.
In his essay “9/11 as Avant-Garde Art?” Richard Schechner investigates the performing and the following representation of the attacks through the lens of performance studies.
“At one point he says that the first plane was hitting the first tower, and then there was a lot of smoke, and you couldn’t really see. And then as soon as the fog started going down, as soon as you could see the towers again, the second plane arrived. And he thinks that this was choreographed, as well as the timing.” (Anonymous Interviewee n.1)
Such a way of researching a terrorist attack is highly controversial, but also extremely helpful when it comes to understanding it from another perspective.
The United States’ administration, on the other hand, has repeatedly presented the attack as an act against a much more global community than their nation, making the “Us VS Them” rhetoric a global issue. The representation was conducted in various ways – naturally, with numerous reportages and newspaper articles, but also with the distribution of the video footages almost as if they were movies, which further popularized them.
“Almost as they were occurring, the 9/11 attacks were marketed as popular entertainment. Representation of the attacks are paradigmatic of the accelerating conflation of news and entertainment, and not only in the United States. In Yueqing, a newly industrialized city southwest of Shanghai, videos showing the attacks were for sale by 14 September. […] As Peter Hessler reported from China: “They stocked them on the same racks as the Hollywood movies […] All of the 9/11 videos had been packaged to look like Hollywood movies. I found a DVD entitled “The Century’s Greatest Catastrophe”; the box featured photographs of Osama bin Laden, George W. Bush, and the burning Twin Towers”.” (Schechner, 2009)
Seeing the attacks through the lens of the movie aesthetic is beyond helpful for understanding their impact, especially on the younger generation and the people outside of the so-called “Western world”.
“I was a baby in 2001 and I have no personal memories of the attacks. But I have seen so many videos, so many photos and reportages that I kind of feel like I remember them in a way because I was somehow surrounded by the image and the memory of them throughout my whole life. At the same time, I still cannot believe they really happened, it all feels so unreal, it is like a scene of an action movie or something.” (Anonymous Interviewee n.3)
In addition, a very important aspect of the 9/11 representation are the symbols. According to an anonymous scholar, “in the US, media has really solidified symbols around 9/11. So the shape of two towers or an American flag waving, or the phrase “United We Stand”” (Anonymous Interviewee n.2). They not only represent the attacks, but also provoke strong emotions in people, especially in the Western World. They are also one of the “bridges” that tightly connect the representation and the collective memory of this case.
Collective Memory of 9/11
In order for the specific case of 9/11 attacks’ preservation in collective memory to be researched, first a definition of “collective memory” is to be chosen. This is a topic, studied by a multitude of scholars, and thus, there are various definitions of it, some of which in a complete opposition.
Maurice Halbwachs claims that “a completely isolated individual could not establish any memory at all”. He argues that “memories are built up, developed, and sustained in interaction” (cited in Assmann, A., 2006, p.4), whereas Susan Sontag, for example, would claim that collective memory does not exist. For her, “All memory is individual, unreproducible—it dies with each person. What is called collective memory is not a remembering but a stipulating” (cited in Assmann, A., 2006, p.12). Having in mind these grand differences in the opinions on collective memory, a more moderate definition is to be utilized in this text. It belongs to a scholar, who works on the theme of collective memory. He explains the term as:
“The memories that are shared by a group. And it’s what makes the group the group. The fact that they share those memories unifies the group. But it’s almost as though there’s no individuality or specificity in some ways to the memory. It’s more of a creation, a shared creation. And each person probably has their own either true or false version of the memory, but the overall one is one that they all know. There are certain points that everyone knows that even if you don’t remember, that’s part of collective memory. So, it’s something that they all share. They didn’t even necessarily experience it, but it’s part of the culture and it’s what holds the group together.” (Anonymous Interviewee n.2)
After clarifying the definition that will be used, it is important to understand how the terrorist attacks of 11th September 2001 entered the collective memory of societies all around the world and how they remained there. Firstly, the attacks were unique, unprecedented, which made them even more shocking and remembering – the history has not witnessed such an event ever before. Moreover, a very important role in this process is played by their representation – not only in the political discourses, but also in media.
Laura Robinson’s text gives valuable insight to the reactions to 9/11 in Brazil. After the attacks, a strong anti-American position could be seen in the country, including opinions like:
“The country of liberty and democracy sponsored dictatorships in all of Latin America and the world, from the coups d’états to the subsequent assassinations, exiling, and torture. They sponsored them using the argument that they were defending liberty … perhaps it would be a good time for the Unitedstatesien people to reflect on their state’s bellicose foreign policy.” (Robinson, 2017, p.5)
The Brazilian reaction to 9/11 is very interesting and important exactly because of the complicated relationship between the countries in South America and the United States. Such opinions, though extremely radical, are not much surprising. At the same time however, an opposing anti-anti-American position arose in the country. The people expressing it claim that nothing could ever justify such an attack and even that “the terrorists have committed a crime against the entire human race” (Robinson, 2017, p.10). Undoubtedly, the rising of such opinions could be seen in numerous other countries, however Brazil is an intriguing case due to its history of relations to the United States.
In Europe, the attacks are remembered vividly and have a strong impact on the collective memory and various opinions are present also today. Especially in what used to be the Eastern bloc, the anti-American positions are not rarely seen. Generally, the situation could be compared to that in Brazil. The attacks were seen in real time on TV by most of the people on the continent, since they occurred in the afternoon (European time). An interviewee shares their memory of 11th September in Italy. She was at work at the time the broadcasting started.
“I was out for a break and when I came back, everyone was watching something on the TV. I went to see what was going on and saw the burning and smoking tower. Everyone was shocked. We could not believe what they were seeing, it was something unimaginable. And also, we were very scared of what we were seeing and of the idea that it was going to happen again somewhere in Europe.” (Anonymous Interviewee n.5)
In fact, the fear from the attacks was enhanced by the expectation that they might occur again somewhere else. This fear seems to be stronger in Europe and the United States, so the Western world, which appeared as a unity in a multitude of political discourses. The life of people has undoubtedly changed in a way, with the enhanced airport security being a bright example. Moreover, the strong fear is also linked to a significant impact on the economy, especially of the United States. In the immediate aftermath of 9/11 and the collapse of one of the biggest symbols of capitalism, the Western economy witnessed a significant decrease.
It could be claimed that the attacks are not as strongly remembered in East Asia. They have still remained in the collective memory and nevertheless, have changed the life and perception of people but not in the way it happened in the Western World. An interviewee from China shared: “of course, the attacks shocked and scared us but little by little they began to fade. The emphasis on them [the attacks] was not so strong as it probably was in Europe or America” (Anonymous Interviewee n.4). This could also be connected to a theory that Richard Schechner expressed in his essay – that the attacks did not intend so much to kill as many people as possible, as they were planned to occur in a time when they would reach the largest spectatorship possible in the West – “synchronized to the morning news cycle in New York and midday in Europe” (Schechner, 2009). This way the impact was as big as possible and the remaining in the collective memory was guaranteed.
In her text Kylie Harrison claims that “by collapsing the traditional distinctions between those who physically experienced the trauma and those who witnessed it, 9/11 was formed as a collective trauma” (Harrison, 2020). The attacks were witnessed (virtually or in person) simultaneously by people all around the world, which made them an event of global significance for the collective memory.
Final Remarks
In conclusion, researching the representation and collective memory of 9/11 attacks is
crucial for understanding their impact on the course of contemporary history. They undoubtedly
changed the lifestyle and way of thinking of people in many different areas around the world
and are an example of the influence of media and political rhetoric par excellence.
The attacks not only altered the course of history but also impacted global politics,
security, and the psyche of millions. Its representation in media and political discourse fueled
polarization and shaped public perception. The collective memory of 9/11, though varying
across cultures, remains a proof of the enduring impact of this tragedy on humanity’s shared
narrative, illustrating the societies’ reaction to episodes of profound shock.
Bibliography
Archival Sources
1. Assmann, Aleida, “Memory, Individual and Collective”. The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis. 2006
2. Robinson, Laura. Collective memory: September 11th now and then, Information, Communication & Society, 20:3, 319-334. 2017.
3. Schechner, Richard. “911 as Avant-Garde Art” PMLA, vol. 124, no. 5, 2009
Interviews:
1. Anonymous Interviewee n.1 – a scholar
2. Anonymous Interviewee n.2 – a scholar
3. Anonymous Interviewee n.3 – from the United States of America
4. Anonymous Interviewee n.4 – from China
5. Anonymous Interviewee n.5 – from Italy
